Among the many sources consulted in preparing this site were:

Bancroft H. (1932). Herbs, Herbals, Herbalists, The Scientific Monthly, Vol. 35 No. 3 (Sept 1932), pp239-253.

Black W. (2025) Magical Medicine in Medieval Manuscripts, Circulating Now, Writings from the Historical Collections of the National Library of Medicine, 5 June 2025

Bowskill V. and Tatarenko I. (2021). From Shoots to Roots: revealing the above and below ground structure of meadow plants. Floodplain Meadows Partnership

Brevart F.B. (2008). Between Medicine, Magic and Religion: Wonder Drugs in German Medico-Pharmaceutical Treatises of the Thirteenth to the Sixteenth Centuries, Speculum, Vol. 83 No. 1, Jan. 2008, pp 1-57.

DerMarderosian A. H. (1996) Milestones in Pharmaceutical Botany: Pre-History to 1900, Pharmacy in History, Vol. 38 No.1, 1996, pp15-19

Domeignoz-Horta L., Cappelli S., et al (2024). Plant diversity drives positive microbial associations in the rhizosphere enhancing carbon use efficiency in agricultural soils. Nature Communications, 2024; 15 (1).

English Heritage (2016) What to Grow in a Medieval Herb Garden, Blog post, 6 May 2016

Foot S., Williamson, N. et al (updated 2020 - 2026) The Cistercians in Yorkshire, The Digital Humanities Institute, University of Sheffield, For a full list of project staff, advisors, acknowledgements and editors, see dhi.ac.uk/blogs/cistercians/about-the-project.

Freeman J. (2025a), Medical Miscellany, Cambridge, University Library, MS Dd. 6.29 (Record Author)

Freeman J. (2025b) Medical Recipes and Charms, Cambridge, University Library, MS Add. 9308 (Record Author)

Gies E. (2026).  How Forest Bathing Keeps Lungs Healthy, Nature Outlook, 28 January 2026 

Harrison S. A. (2024) English Heritage, Byland Abbey, ed. Wilson L., 1999 (reprinted 2024)

Hawkins H-J., Cargill R.I.M. et al (2023) Mycorrhizal Mycelium as a Global Carbon Pool, Current Biology, Vol. 33, Issue 11, ppR560-R573

Heinrich M., Barnes J., Prieto-Garcia J.M., Gibbons S., Williamson E.M. (2024). Fundamentals of Pharmacognosy and Phytotherapy, 4th edition, Elsevier, ISBN: 978-0-83434-6

Howes L. (2013). Magnificent Molecules: Geosmin, The Mole, Royal Society of Chemistry, July 2013

Innes M. and Perry C. (2002). Medieval Flowers, Kyle Cathie Ltd, ISBN: 1-85626-418-1

Keezer W.S. (1963). Botanical Sources of Early Medicines, Bios, Vol. 34, No. 4 (Dec., 1963), pp. 185-191

Jose, Wu & Kamoun (2019) ‘Overcoming Plant Blindness in Science, Education & Society’, Plants, People & Planet, 2019, 1-169-172 

Lord R. (2022). Clinical Herbalism: Plant Wisdom from East and West, Elsevier, ISBN: 978-0-323-72176-9

Li, Q. (2023).  New Concept of Forest Medicine, Forests ,14(5), 1024 (2023)

Liu, S., Ward, S.E., Wilby, A. et al. (2025) Multiple targeted grassland restoration interventions enhance ecosystem service multifunctionality. Nat Commun 16, 3971 (2025). 

Monastic Medicine Research Group (various), University of Wurzburg, Klostermedizin.de

Overduin, F. . (2021). The Carmen de viribus herbarum (GDRK 64): Between Magical Pharmacology and Homeric Didactic. Acta Classica Universitatis Scientiarum Debreceniensis, 57, pp129–142

Palladius: 'Opus Agriculturae' (ca. 12th century), Trinity College, Cambridge, MS O.3.42 (the Byland manuscript is believed to be a copy of Durham Cathedral Library MS B.IV.24).  The 'Moore Palladius' is ca. 9th century, Saint-Denis, Cambridge University Library, MS Kk 5.13

Powell A. (ca. 2002).  Research Notes on Medieval Herbs, Vegetables and Flowers, private collection.

Readers Digest (2009). The Ultimate Book of Herbs, UK Consultant and Writer: Brown D, Medical Consultants: National Institute of Medical Herbalists.

Roberts S. ,Freeman J. & Parmenter E. (2025) Weasel Testicles, Stargazing and Royal Remedies: Medieval Medicines Examined in the Curious Cures Exhibition, cam.ac.uk/stories/curious-cures-exhibition

Silberman H.C. (1996). Superstition and Medical Knowledge in an Italian Herbal, Pharmacy in History, Vol. 38 No. 2, 1996, pp87-94.

Stannard J. (2013) Medieval Herbalism and Post-Medieval Folk Medicine, Pharmacy in History, 2013, Vol. 55 No. 2/3, pp47-54.

Sweet, V. (1999).  Hildegard of Bingen and the Greening of Medieval Medicine, Bulletin of the History of Medicine, Vol. 73 No. 3, Fall 1999, pp381-403

Tanaka, T., & Hashimoto, S. (2006). Plant canopy effects on soil thermal and hydrological properties and soil respiration, Ecological Modelling, 196(1-2), pp32-44

The Dalesman (2005), Monks’ Growing Habits, The Dalesman, ed. Fletcher. T,  August 2005, pp 33-35

The Garden History Blog (2019) The Perfect Monastic Garden, thegardenhistory.blog/2019/08/31/the-perfect-monastic-garden

Williams, F. (2017). The Nature Fix: Why Nature Makes Us Happier, Healthier and More Creative, 1st edition, New York, W. W. Norton & Co., 

Yang, Y., Tilman, D., Furey, G. et al. (2019) Soil carbon sequestration accelerated by restoration of grassland biodiversity. Nat Commun 10, 718 (2019) 

An Apple a Day - Kept Lice Away?

Fruit orchards were an important part of the monastic landscape in Medieval times:

The 9th century plan for the Abbey of St Gall in Switzerland (Grand Designs) included an orchard, not just for food, but also as a cemetery for the monks.  Charlemagne's planting list of the same period included apple trees (Malus domestica) with exotically named varieties such as 'gozmaringa' and 'crevedella'.  The selection was carefully crafted to be multi-functional and to crop across the seasons: including 'sweet ones, bitter ones, those that keep well, those that are to be eaten straightaway, and early ones'.  A drying house was even specified to help bridge the winter food gap (The Garden History Blog, 2019).  

On our doorstep, Byland Abbey's precinct is also noted as having included orchards as part of the Cistercian self-sufficiency model (Digital Humanities Institute, revised 2020).  

With apples and other top fruits being widely grown, it is perhaps unsurprising they were also exploited for medicinal purposes:

According to a recipe from 'Medical Miscellany', a 15th century manuscript in Cambridge University Library, unfortunately, an apple a day was not enough to keep the lice away!

The cure started with a sauce made using 'sour apples of the sourest you may find', but it was to be heavily dosed with 'quicksilver'.  Thus, a toxic topical brew of a liquid metal, mercury, and, primarily, malic acid.  The recipe-maker was confident of success: 'on warranties' (it was guaranteed) to rid the patient of lice.  Whether the patient survived the horrifying treatment or suffered its consequences in other ways is not mentioned. 

Apples in their simplest form were used in magical charms: a manuscript compiled at the abbey of Bury St. Edmunds called: 'For fevers.  Write on an apple:  In the name of the Father, Son & Holy Ghost, Amen ..'.

By the end of the 16th century, Malus had achieved such widespread use in folk medicine that a compendium was dedicated to the 'Vertues of Apples'  in John Gerard's famous 'Herball or A Generall Historie of Plantes'.  The fruit was included in remedies for everything from digestive complaints, fevers and urinary tract problems, to fainting and melancholy.  It was also an ingredient in a popular skin softening ointment, 'pomatum', made from apple pulp, rose water and lard.  

As charming as they may be, our contemporary take on Malus goes beyond folk medicine to explore its full life-cycle value - potential opportunities for deriving useful by-products and extracting interesting bio-active compounds - feeding the 'roots-to-fruits' circular system of Byland Herboretum!

1 - Dandelion

Dandelion leaves are common in modern salads, but in Medieval medicine, they were primarily used as a diuretic. How does the dandelion's physical structure help it sequester carbon more effectively than shallow-rooted turf grasses?

Options:

A - Its long taproot deposits organic carbon deep into the soil profile.

B - Its yellow flowers reflect sunlight to cool the soil.

C - It absorbs carbon exclusively through its seeds.

D - The milky latex in the stem traps carbon in liquid form.

Correct Answer: A - Dandelion's deep taproots reach soil layers where stored carbon is less likely to be released back into the atmosphere.

2 - Red Clover

Often used today in herbal teas. In the Middle Ages, it was used to treat respiratory issues. As a legume, how does Red Clover indirectly support carbon storage in a meadow? 

Options:

A - It secretes a toxic oil to prevent microbes from eating carbon.

B - It fixes nitrogen, boosting the growth and biomass of surrounding plants.

C - Its leaves are waterproof, preventing carbon from washing away.

D - It converts soil stones into carbon-rich minerals.

Correct Answer: B - Red clover fixes nitrogen in the soil, boosting the growth and biomass of surrounding plants.

3 - Yarrow

Used today to flavour certain beers and salads.  Known as 'Soldier's Woundwort' in Medieval times for its ability to staunch blood, why is its 'feathery' leaf structure beneficial for a meadow's carbon cycle? 

Options:

A -It creates a dense canopy that shades soil, reducing carbon loss from heat-driven decomposition.

B - The leaves act as straws to suck carbon from the water table.

C - The feathery shape catches carbon dust floating in the wind.

D - Each leaf segment stores more carbon than a large flat leaf.

Correct Answer: A - Yarrow's abundant and feathery leaf structure helps to maintain cooler, moister soil conditions which in turn helps to slow down the conversion of soil organic matter into carbon-dioxide.  

4 - Nettles

Widely used today for soups and tea (don't handle without protective gloves and follow cooking instructions!). In the Middle Ages (but not today), 'urtication' (beating with nettles) was used to treat rheumatism.  How does the presence of nettles in a diverse meadow indicate high carbon potential?

Options:

A - Nettles only grow where carbon has turned into diamonds.

B - Rapid growth and high biomass mean they pull large amounts of CO2 (carbon-dioxide) from the air.

C - The stinging hairs are made of pure pressurized carbon dioxide.

D - Nettles absorb carbon through their stings from passing animals.

Correct Answer: B - Highly productive plants like nettles move significant amounts of carbon from the atmosphere into organic plant tissue.

5 - Mallow

Mallow has edible flowers and leaves that are used in modern gourmet garnishes.  Medieval healers used it as a 'mucilage' to soothe sore throats.  Why do diverse wildflower mixes including mallows store more carbon than a single-species grass lawn? 

Options:

A - Wildflowers have shorter lifespans and turn into carbon faster.

B - Niche complementarity: different root shapes fill the soil more completely with organic matter.

C - Wildflowers breathe out oxygen that turns soil into carbon.

D - Mallow flowers attract bees which carry carbon from other meadows.  

Correct Answer: B - Diverse wildflower meadows ensure that all levels of the soil profile are utilized for carbon deposition.

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